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Despite its enormous successes, the overall response rate of cancer immunotherapy remains suboptimal, especially in breast cancer. There is an increased interest in combining immune checkpoint inhibitor with targeted agents to enhance antitumor effect. Anti-angiogenic drugs have been shown to synergize with immune checkpoint blockades, but the optimal setting for combining these two modalities and the underlying mechanisms of synergistic responses are not fully understood.

We tested the combination of anti–PD-1 and different doses of VEGFR2-targeting agents in syngeneic breast cancer mouse models. Tumor-infiltrated immune cell subsets were profiled by flow cytometry. A cytokine array was carried out to identify inflammatory changes in different treatment conditions. The efficacy of combined anti-angiogenic and anti–PD-1 therapy …