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Numerous theories have attempted to reconcile the apparent incompatibility of feeling and acting toward the well-being of others with the drive for individual survival and reproductive success emphasized by traditional evolutionary perspectives. According to kin selection processes, a network of genetically related individuals within a population will cooperate and engage in altruistic acts with one another and thereby increase the average genetic fitness of the network as a whole, even if such behavior reduces the individual fitness of certain members of the group (Wilson, 1978). With evolutionary pressure having selected for a propensity for cooperative or altruistic behaviors toward kin, one can expect that such behaviors would occasionally be directed toward unrelated others (West, El Mouden, & Gardner, 2011).

Some sociobiologists have suggested that altruism evolved through reciprocity (Trivers, 1971). Under …