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TNF-α: 2NPs: Titanium dioxide nanoparticles Tumour necrosis factor-α WSTs: Water-soluble tetrazolium salts XTT: 2, 3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide) ZnNPs: Zinc nanoparticles ZnONPs: Zinc oxide nanoparticles approximately 1–100 nm (ISO, 2008, 2010). One billionth of a metre is known as nanometre, which is half about the size of a DNA diameter, a thousand times tinier than a red blood cell (RBC) or one hundred thousand times smaller than human hair diameter (Tarafdar et al., 2013). In 1959, at the American Physical Society, Nobel Prize physicist, Richard P. Feynman, introduced the first concept of nanotechnological strategies in a lecture entitled ‘There’s plenty of room at the bottom’(Bogdan et al., 2017). In the year 2000, United States president, Bill Clinton, launched the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which paved the way for an innovative field revolution. Great efforts were put forward to accelerate worldwide nanotechnology research. Surprisingly, the nanotechnology field was globally welcomed, and a great number of interdisciplinary research projects were undertaken (Saifi et al., 2018b). Based on their size, morphology and chemical properties, NPs are classified into carbon-based, metal-based, ceramic-based, lipid-based, semiconductor-based and polymeric NPs (Khan et al., 2019). NPs should inherently display distinct properties, such as chemical reactivity, magnetism, electrical conductance and physical strength differently from bulk particles due to their small size (Nikalje, 2015). For example, TiO 2 NPs used in sunscreen products exhibit white colour in their bulk form but in nanoform …