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A novel comprehensive calculation bounds the long-term energy implications of road vehicle 3 automation. We combine multiple engineering estimates of the energy-efficiency benefits of vehicle 4 automation resulting from traffic flow improvements, intelligent speed adaptation, vehicle drag 5 reduction through platooning, and possible vehicle size and weight variations. Many of these 6 advantages can be brought about through relatively low level of automation and are also applicable 7 for highly automated vehicles, such as self-driving Level 4 vehicles. However, highly-automated 8 vehicles can have significant behavioural implications that can increase fuel consumption due to road 9 travel. Higher speeds could offset fuel efficiency gains. Potentially lower per-mile energy costs and 10 vehicle insurance costs (due to fewer accidents), plus a possible sharp reduction in the large cost 11 component associated with …