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By Annamaria Lusardi and Olivia S. Mitchell* but such efforts have had only a very mixed effect on saving patterns (Lusardi and Mitchell 2007c). One-size-fits-all programs are unlikely to successfully address saving shortfalls among many different groups. Specifically, insofar as financial illiteracy is widespread among women, it is doubtful that a one-time financial education seminar can reshape long-term planning and saving decisions. Instead, programs targeted specifically at women may be better suited to address fundamental differences in their preferences, saving needs, and financial knowledge.