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This review evaluates cow milk’s impact on breast carcinogenesis by linking recent epidemiological evidence and new insights into the molecular signaling of milk and its constituents in breast cancer (BCa) pathogenesis.

Recent prospective cohort studies support the association between cow’s milk consumption and the risk of estrogen receptor-α-positive (ER⁺) BCa. Milk is a complex biological fluid that increases systemic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), insulin and estrogen signaling, and interacting hormonal promoters of BCa. Further potential oncogenic components of commercial milk include exosomal microRNAs (miR-148a-3p, miR-21-5p), bovine meat and milk factors, aflatoxin M1, bisphenol A, pesticides, and micro- and nanoplastics. Individuals with BRCA1 loss-of-function mutations and FTO and IGF1 gain-of-function polymorphisms enhancing IGF-1/mTORC1 …