Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are the primary pollinators of major horticultural crops. Over the
last few decades, a substantial decline in honey bees and their colonies have been
reported. While a plethora of factors could contribute to the putative decline, pathogens, and
pesticides are common concerns that draw attention. In addition to potential direct effects on
honey bees, indirect pesticide effects could include alteration of essential gut microbial
communities and symbionts that are important to honey bee health (eg, immune system) …