such as conspiracy theories. First, there was the development of a new coronavirus, for which the scientific community had not reached a consensus in understanding or treatment. Second, there was the long-established mistrust of politics and the media (Blondiaux 2021; Cheurfa and Chanvril 2019; Kantar 2021). Third, at a time that required strong, clear statements, French official communication had been contradictory and confusing since the very beginning of the pandemic, in March 2020. On March 3, for example, a government spokeswoman insisted that:“We won’t close the schools. Even if stage 3 is reached, that is to say a pandemic that circulates all over the country, we won’t stop the everyday life of France.” President Macron, on March 5, said:“At this time, we all know that the pandemic is inexorable.” Two days later, the French president, after attending a play in a theater, declared that,“There is no reason, except for vulnerable people, to change our habits and hobbies,” while clusters were already reported in several parts of France (Oise, Val d’Oise, Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin, Morbihan, Corsica, etc.). On March 9, France banned rallies of more than 1,000 people, and on March 11, visits to retirement homes were suspended. The very same day, while visiting a grammar school, the minister of health told accompanying journalists,“Children do not constitute a vulnerable public. There is no reason to fear bringing them to school.” Those words were confirmed the next morning by the minister of education–“We never thought to close schools”–while in the evening President Macron ordered a set of restrictions to combat “the most serious health crisis in one century,” including school closures. During his statement, the president also called upon people to stay at home, except to vote in the municipal elections the following Sunday. On March 14, the then prime minister announced more restrictive measures, such as the closure at midnight of “all non-essential” public places. After a historical rate of abstention for municipal elections–55 percent–President Macron declared on March 16 that France was at “war” and announced “a fifty-day lockdown, at least.” Under threat of fines or other punishment,“non-essential” travels were prohibited;“essential journeys” were subjected to self-authorization through an official form. In addition to the uncertainty caused by the new virus itself (even including its name: le/la Covid-19, coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, 2019-nCoV,“Chinese virus” etc.), these episodes illustrate the confusion and contradictions in government communication since the very beginning of the pandemic. Indeed, this contradictory and unclear messaging has been constantly repeated since then. Masks were deemed useless in March 2020, but then became imperative to wear in public in April; the idea of introducing a “health passport” was dismissed as pure fantasy in April 2020, only for Covid-19 health passes to be established in August (which became a “vaccine pass” in February 2022). Likewise, the quid pro quo concerning the suspension for a couple of days of the AstraZeneca vaccine in March 2021, all the while described as safe and beneficial according to the health authorities. It is no surprise that many French citizens, combined with a preexisting suspicion of the political class, doubted that the government could efficiently fight the Covid-19 pandemic (Perrineau 2020).