Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the ideal energy storage device for electric vehicles, and
their environmental, economic, and resource risks assessment are urgent issues. Therefore,
the life cycle assessment (LCA) of LIBs in the entire lifespan is becoming a hotspot. This
study first reviews the basic framework and types, standards and methods, and technical
challenges of LCA. Then, the cradle-to-cradle LCA framework for LIBs is constructed, and
the technical route of LCA in the stages of battery production, usage, secondary utilization …