medicine. A central challenge in estimating the ITE is handling confounders, which are
factors that affect both an intervention and its outcome. Most previous work relies on the
unconfoundedness assumption, which posits that all the confounders are measured in the
observational data. However, if there are unmeasurable (latent) confounders, then
confounding bias is introduced. Fortunately, noisy proxies for the latent confounders are …