1. INTRODUCTION Any surface immersed in seawater is subjected to the settlement of marine organisms (bacteria, algae, mollusks), known as fouling or biofouling. This unwanted colonization has serious impacts, in particular for the naval industry, with deterioration of the surfaces, increased roughness, increased fuel consumption, and loss of maneuverability of the vessels. Marine species may also be introduced into non-native environments through ship transport. Marine biofouling is a worldwide problem, costing billions of dollars per year in transportation. 1, 2 Antifouling (AF) coatings have been developed to prevent the settlement of fouling organisms. The earliest techniques proposed were pitch, tar, wax, heavy metals (lead), or toxic (arsenic-based) coatings. 3 In the mid-1960s, self-polishing AF paints incorporating tributyl tin (TBT-based compounds) were the first to show durable efficiency with a modest cost of production. TBT acts as a broad-spectrum biocide and can be incorporated into paints in such that it is released from the coating and effectively inhibits fouling on a ship hull up to five years. However, in the late 1970s, the effects of TBT became apparent. Several studies indicated that TBT-based compounds had adverse effects on aquatic life and more specifically on nontargeted fouling organisms such as oysters, due to its high persistence and toxicity. 4, 5 The impact of TBT on marine organisms induced many governments to restrict its use. France was the first to ban the application of TBT-based AF paints on ships less than 25 m long in 1982. 6 In October 2001, the International Maritime Organization took into account the adverse effects of TBT on the marine environment. An order was issued banning the use of this type of biocide in the manufacturing of AF paints from first January 2003 and the presence of these paints on ship surfaces from first January 2008. 7 The restriction on the use of TBT led to a renewed use of copper-based paints and/or the use of new paints incorporating high levels of copper. However, copper (and other metals) may also pose problems for the environment. 8