Background Large-scale survey assessments have been used for decades to monitor what
students know and can do. Such assessments aim at providing group-level scores for
various populations, with little or no consequence to individual students for their test
performance. Students' test-taking behaviors in survey assessments, particularly the level of
test-taking effort, and their effects on performance have been a long-standing question. This
paper presents a procedure to examine test-taking behaviors using response time collected …