The earliest known route of vaccination was respiratory, by intranasal insufflation of
powdered scab material containing variola virus from smallpox patients, reportedly practiced …

Display of heterologous proteins on the surface of micro‐organisms, enabled by means of
recombinant DNA technology, has become an increasingly popular strategy in microbiology …

Non-pathogenic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are attractive as live carriers to deliver protective
antigens to the mucosal immune system. Both persisting and non-persisting strains of lactic …

Most pathogens enter the body through mucosal surfaces. Mucosal immunization, a non-
invasive needle-free route, often stimulates a mucosal immune response that is both …

The mucosal and cellular responses of mice were studied, following mucosal-route
administration of recombinant Lactococcus lactis expressing tetanus toxin fragment C …

Maternal and neonatal tetanus claim tens of thousands lives every year in developing
countries, but could be prevented by hygienic practices and improved immunization of …

With the increased knowledge on spore structure and advances in biotechnology
engineering, the newly developed spore-surface display system confers several inherent …

The targeting and anchoring of heterologous proteins and peptides to the outer surface of
bacteriophages and cells is becoming increasingly important, and has been employed as a …

Spores of the genus Bacillus have been used for a long time as probiotics for oral
bacteriotherapy both in humans and in animals. Spores are also employed in a veterinary …

Tetanus toxoid (TTd) plays an important role in the pharmaceutical world, especially in
vaccines. The toxoid is obtained after formaldehyde treatment of the tetanus toxin. In …