Numerous pathogens can infect the olfactory tract, yet the pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-
2 has strongly emphasized the importance of the olfactory mucosa as an immune barrier …

Lymph nodes are secondary lymphoid organs in which immune responses of the adaptive
immune system are initiated and regulated. Distributed throughout the body and embedded …

The development of effective SARS-CoV-2 vaccines has been essential to control COVID-
19, but significant challenges remain. One problem is intramuscular administration, which …

Introduction The upper respiratory tract is a major route of infection for COVID-19 and other
respiratory diseases. Thus, it appears logical to exploit the nose as administration site to …

Intranasal vaccines, eliciting mucosal immune responses, can prevent early invasion,
replication, and transmission of pathogens in the respiratory tract. However, the effective …

The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic led to the development of several effective SARS-
CoV-2 vaccines. However, waning vaccine efficacy as well as the antigenic drift of SARS …

Live attenuated vaccines (LAVs) administered via the mucosal route may offer better control
of the COVID-19 pandemic than non-replicating vaccines injected intramuscularly …

By the end of 2022, different variants of Omicron had rapidly spread worldwide, causing a
significant impact on the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic situation …

After two years since the declaration of COVID-19 as a pandemic by the World Health
Organization (WHO), more than six million deaths have occurred due to SARS-CoV-2 …

The recent emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
caused serious harm to human health and struck a blow to global economic development …