Cell types are the basic functional units of an organism. Cell types exhibit diverse
phenotypic properties at multiple levels, making them challenging to define, categorize, and …

Dopamine is a critical modulator of both learning and motivation. This presents a problem:
how can target cells know whether increased dopamine is a signal to learn or to move? It is …

Dopamine neurons are characterized by their response to unexpected rewards, but they
also fire during movement and aversive stimuli. Dopamine neuron diversity has been …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a devastating and highly prevalent neurodegenerative disease
for which only symptomatic treatment is available. In order to develop a truly effective …

Physical activity (PA) has been central in the life of our species for most of its history, and
thus shaped our physiology during evolution. However, only recently the health …

Intracellular α-synuclein (α-syn)-rich protein aggregates called Lewy pathology (LP) and
neuronal death are commonly found in the brains of patients with clinical Parkinson disease …

Understanding human embryonic ventral midbrain is of major interest for Parkinson's
disease. However, the cell types, their gene expression dynamics, and their relationship to …

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons have diverse functions that can in part be explained by
their heterogeneity. Although molecularly distinct subtypes of DA neurons have been …

Recent advances in 3D culture systems have led to the generation of brain organoids that
resemble different human brain regions; however, a 3D organoid model of the midbrain …

Ethanol is one of the most commonly abused drugs. Although environmental and genetic
factors contribute to the etiology of alcohol use disorders, it is ethanol's actions in the brain …