Androgens and androgen receptors (AR) play a pivotal role in expression of the male
phenotype. Several diseases, such as androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) and prostate …

Differences/disorders of sex development (DSD) are a heterogeneous group of congenital
conditions that result in discordance between an individual's sex chromosomes, gonads …

Context: Disorders of sex development (DSD) are clinical conditions where there is a
discrepancy between the chromosomal sex and the phenotypic (gonadal or genital) sex of …

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) results from androgen receptor dysfunction and is a
common cause of disorder of sex development. The AIS phenotype largely depends on the …

It is well-known that sex hormones can directly and indirectly influence immune cell function.
Different studies support a suppressive role of androgens on different components of the …

Gynaecomastia (enlargement of the male breast tissue) is a common finding in the general
population. Most cases of gynaecomastia are benign and of cosmetic, rather than clinical …

Context: The prevalence of phenotypic females with a 46, XY karyotype is low, thus current
knowledge about age and clinical presentation at diagnosis is sparse even for the most …

Sexual development in humans is only partly understood at the molecular level. It is
dependent on genetic control primarily induced by the sex chromosomal differences …

After reviewing the mechanisms of androgen action, we will look at the main clinical features
of androgen insensitivity. The diagnosis of CAIS arises usually at puberty, when normal …

Masculinization of external genitalia is an essential process in the formation of the male
reproductive system. Prominent characteristics of this masculinization are the organ size and …