The development of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) was a great milestone in the management of
HIV infection. ARVs suppress viral activity in the host cell, thus minimizing injury to the cells …

Neuroinflammation, characterized by the activation of glial cells, is a hallmark in several
neurological and neurodegenerative disorders. Inadequate inflammation cannot eliminate …

Genetic polymorphisms in genes that encode natural ligands of CCR5 (the main human HIV
coreceptor), such as CCL5/RANTES, can alter the levels of secretion of these peptides. This …

Background: HIV infection causes neuroinflammation and immune activation (NIIA) and
systemic inflammation and immune activation (SIIA), which in turn drive neurodegeneration …

HIV type 1 (HIV-1) is the causative agent of AIDS. Since the start of the epidemic, HIV/AIDS
has been responsible for≈ 40 million deaths. Additionally, an estimated 39 million people …

Introduction Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) is a constitutively active, ubiquitous
expressed ser/thr kinase that is involved in a large number of signaling pathways. GSK-3 is …

The discovery of anti‐retroviral (ARV) drugs over the past 36 years has introduced various
classes, including nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors, non‐nucleoside …

The understanding of HIV-1 pathogenesis and clinical progression is incomplete due to the
variable contribution of host, immune, and viral factors. The involvement of viral factors has …

Background Elite controllers are able to control viral replication without antiretroviral therapy.
Exceptional elite controllers do not show disease progression for more than 25 years …

CD4+ T cells (T helper cells) are cytokine-producing adaptive immune cells that activate or
regulate the responses of various immune cells. The activation and functional status of …