We examined whether the link between intelligence and musical expertise is better
explained by formal music lessons or music aptitude. Musically trained and untrained adults …

Many studies have found that variation in music training is associated with intellectual
abilities, but research disagrees over whether music education should primarily correlate …

Although most studies that examined associations between music training and cognitive
abilities had correlational designs, the prevailing bias is that music training causes …

Individuals differ in musical competence, which we defined as the ability to perceive,
remember, and discriminate sequences of tones or beats. We asked whether such …

Musical education has a beneficial effect on higher cognitive functions, but questions arise
whether associations between music lessons and cognitive abilities are specific to a domain …

Although links between music training and cognitive abilities are relatively well‐established,
unresolved issues include the generality of the association, the direction of causation, and …

musically trained and untrained participants were administered tests of emotional
intelligence and IQ. As in previous research, trained participants scored higher than …

Studies on associations between music training and cognitive abilities typically focus on the
possible benefits of music lessons. Recent research suggests, however, that many of these …

Reports that exposure to music causes benefits in nonmusical domains have received
widespread attention in the mainstream media. Despite the fact that the term “Mozart effect” …

There is general agreement that music is a universal trait of humankind (Blacking 1995), that
Homo sapiens as a species has the propensity for musical development, and that musical …