Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to
avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of …

Inducible defense, which is phenotypic plasticity in traits that affect predation risk, is
taxonomically widespread and has been shown to have important ecological …

Invited Review Abstract Isolation from predators affects prey behavior, morphology, and life
history, but there is tremendous variation in the time course of these responses. Previous …

An organism's investment in different traits to reduce predation is determined by the fitness
benefit of the defense relative to the fitness costs associated with the allocation of time and …

One of the most important and obvious forces shaping organismal traits is predation. Prey
have evolved diverse means of enhancing the probability of survival in the face of predation …

Studies of inducible defenses have traditionally examined prey responses to one predator at
a time. However, prey in nature encounter combinations of predators that should force them …

Prey may respond evolutionarily to predator pressure either by removing themselves from
the foraging microhabitat of the predators (predator avoidance mechanisms) or by reducing …

Background Inducible defenses are a common and widespread form of phenotypic plasticity.
A fundamental factor driving their evolution is an unpredictable and heterogeneous …

Defenses protect prey, while offenses arm predators. Some defenses and offenses are
constitutive (eg tortoise shells), while others are phenotypically plastic and not always …

Prey organisms are confronted with time and resource allocation trade-offs. Time allocation
trade-offs partition time, for example, between foraging effort to acquire resources and …