Converging studies have shown that M1 and M2 macrophages are functionally polarized in
response to microorganisms and host mediators. Gene expression profiling of macrophages …

The endothelium forms a vast network that dynamically regulates vascular barrier function,
coagulation pathways and vasomotor tone. Microvascular endothelial cells are uniquely …

The gut microbiota is compartmentalized in the intestinal lumen and induces local immune
responses, but it remains unknown whether the gut microbiota can induce systemic …

Gram-negative bacteria produce membrane vesicles (MVs) from their outer membrane
during growth, although the mechanism for MV production and the advantage that MVs …

TLRs sense components of microorganisms and are critical host mediators of inflammation
during infection. Different TLR agonists can profoundly alter inflammatory effects of one …

Since the advent of penicillin, humans have known about and explored the phenomenon of
bacterial inhibition via antibiotics. However, with changes in the global environment and the …

Sepsis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) are associated with an
exacerbated production of both pro-and anti-inflammatory mediators that are mainly …

The protein Pal (peptidoglycan-associated lipoprotein) is anchored in the outer membrane
(OM) of Gram-negative bacteria and interacts with Tol proteins. Tol–Pal proteins form two …

Sepsis, characterized by a systemic inflammatory state that is usually related to Gram-
negative bacterial infection, is a leading cause of death worldwide. Although the annual …

Severe sepsis is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. High mortality rates in sepsis
are frequently associated with neutropenia. Despite the central role of neutrophils in innate …