The geological record shows that abrupt changes in the Earth system can occur on
timescales short enough to challenge the capacity of human societies to adapt to …

Tipping elements are components of the Earth system which may respond nonlinearly to
anthropogenic climate change by transitioning toward substantially different long‐term …

Climate tipping points occur when change in a part of the climate system becomes self-
perpetuating beyond a warming threshold, leading to substantial Earth system impacts …

2 Chapter 2 assesses observed large-scale changes in climate system drivers, key climate
indicators and 3 principal modes of variability. Chapter 3 considers model performance and …

Global vegetation over the past 18,000 years has been transformed first by the climate
changes that accompanied the last deglaciation and again by increasing human pressures; …

Peatlands are carbon-rich ecosystems that cover just three per cent of Earth's land surface,
but store one-third of soil carbon. Peat soils are formed by the build-up of partially …

During the “Green Sahara” period (11,000 to 5000 years before the present), the Sahara
desert received high amounts of rainfall, supporting diverse vegetation, permanent lakes …

In the future, the Sahara and Sahelian regions could experience more rainfall than today as
a result of climate change. Wetter periods, termed African humid periods, occurred in the …

Monsoons are the dominant seasonal mode of climate variability in the tropics and are
critically important conveyors of atmospheric moisture and energy at a global scale …

The forested swamps of the central Congo Basin store approximately 30 billion metric
tonnes of carbon in peat,. Little is known about the vulnerability of these carbon stocks. Here …