Trained immunity is a long-term increase in responsiveness of innate immune cells, induced
by certain infections and vaccines. During the last 3 years of the COVID-19 pandemic …

BCG vaccination has beneficial off-target (“nonspecific”) effects on nonmycobacterial
infections. On this premise, trials set out to investigate whether BCG provides off-target …

Abstract Type-1 and type-3 interferons (IFNs) are important for control of viral replication;
however, less is known about the role of Type-2 IFN (IFNγ) in anti-viral immunity. We …

SARS-CoV-2 and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) are major infectious causes of death,
with meta-analyses and population-based studies finding increased mortality in co-infected …

The observation of reduced COVID-19 incidence and severity in populations receiving
neonatal intradermal BCG vaccination vaccine raised the question of whether BCG can …

Abstract Background The bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine has immunomodulatory
“off-target” effects that have been hypothesized to protect against coronavirus disease 2019 …

Background Vaccines can have beneficial off-target (heterologous) effects that alter immune
responses to, and protect against, unrelated infections. The heterologous effects of COVID …

Memory T cells form from the adaptive immune response to historic infections or
vaccinations. Some memory T cells have the potential to recognise unrelated pathogens like …

While anticipating the development of a COVID-19-specific vaccine, several randomized
controlled trials (RCTs) explored the potential of BCG vaccination to protect against COVID …

Vaccine efficacy determined within the controlled environment of a clinical trial is usually
substantially greater than real-world vaccine effectiveness. Typically, this results from …