Neurodegeneration is a phenomenon that occurs in the central nervous system through the
hallmarks associating the loss of neuronal structure and function. Neurodegeneration is …

Abstract Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's
disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis have …

Microglial cells are the resident macrophages in the central nervous system. These cells of
mesodermal/mesenchymal origin migrate into all regions of the central nervous system …

Neuroinflammation constitutes a fundamental process involved in the progression of several
neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease …

Signaling pathways are critical modulators of a variety of physiological and pathological
processes, and the abnormal activation of some signaling pathways can contribute to …

Vastly stimulated by the discovery of opioid receptors in the early 1970s, preclinical and
clinical research was directed at the study of stereoselective neuronal actions of opioids …

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative illness associated with dementia and is
most prevalent among the elderly population. Current medications can only treat symptoms …

Granulocyte macrophage‐colony stimulating factor (GM‐CSF) is a hematopoietic growth
factor, which stimulates the proliferation of granulocytes and macrophages from bone …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the
progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and depletion of dopamine …

It has been nearly a century since the early description of microglia by Rio-Hortega; since
then many more biological and pathological features of microglia have been recognized …