Autophagy and apoptosis are basic physiologic processes contributing to the maintenance
of cellular homeostasis. Autophagy encompasses pathways that target long-lived cytosolic …

Microglia are activated in response to a number of different pathological states within the
CNS including injury, ischemia, and infection. Microglial activation results in their production …

Microglia are resident brain macrophages that become inflammatory activated in most brain
pathologies. Microglia normally protect neurons, but may accidentally kill neurons when …

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of
dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta with a reduction of dopamine …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, after
Alzheimer's disease. The potential causes of PD remain uncertain, but recent studies …

Microglia can transform into proinflammatory/classically activated (M1) or anti-inflammatory/
alternatively activated (M2) phenotypes following environmental signals related to …

Neurodegenerative disorders affect more than fifty million Americans each year and
represent serious health threats as the population ages. Neuroinflammation and oxidative …

While peripheral immune access to the central nervous system (CNS) is restricted and tightly
controlled, the CNS is capable of dynamic immune and inflammatory responses to a variety …

The role of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) as an immune mediator has long been appreciated
but its function in the brain is still unclear. TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) is expressed in most cell …

There are numerous observations confirming that microglia expressing major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules are associated with the central nervous …