Antigenic characterization of emerging and re-emerging viruses is necessary for the
prevention of and response to outbreaks, evaluation of infection mechanisms …

Over the years, the emergence of novel H5 and H7 highly pathogenic avian influenza
viruses (HPAI) has been taking place through two main mechanisms: first, the conversion of …

A specific concept of strain was developed in order to classify the BTV serotypes ever
reported in Europe based on their properties of animal health impact: the genotype …

The poor performance of 2014–15 Northern Hemisphere (NH) influenza vaccines was
attributed to mismatched H3N2 component with circulating epidemic strains. Using human …

Avian influenza viruses evolve antigenically to evade host immunity. Two influenza A virus
surface glycoproteins, the haemagglutinin and neuraminidase, are the major targets of host …

The H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus (AIV) has become endemic in poultry globally;
however due to its low pathogenicity, it is not under primary surveillance and control in many …

The North American low pathogenic H7N2 avian influenza A viruses, which lack the 220-
loop in the hemagglutinin (HA), possess dual receptor specificity for avian-and human-like …

Avian influenza virus (AIV) H7N9 that emerged in 2013 in eastern China is a novel zoonotic
agent mainly circulating in poultry without clinical signs but causing severe disease with …

Avian influenza (AI) vaccines have been developed and used to protect poultry and other
birds in various countries of the world. Protection is principally mediated by an immune …

Understanding the dynamics of the selection of influenza A immune escape variants by
serum antibody is critical for designing effective vaccination programs for animals, especially …