Chronic pain is a critical clinical problem with an increasing prevalence. However, there are
limited effective prevention measures and treatments for chronic pain. Astrocytes are the …

Proteases are signaling molecules that specifically control cellular functions by cleaving
protease-activated receptors (PARs). The four known PARs are members of the large family …

Background Acute pain is a warning mechanism that exists to prevent tissue damage,
however pain can outlast its protective purpose and persist beyond injury, becoming …

Immune cells and glia interact with neurons to alter pain sensitivity and to mediate the
transition from acute to chronic pain. In response to injury, resident immune cells are …

Pain due to osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most frequent causes of chronic pain. However,
the mechanisms of OA pain are poorly understood. This review addresses the mechanisms …

Glia plays a crucial role in the maintenance of neuronal homeostasis in the central nervous
system. The microglial production of immune factors is believed to play an important role in …

Nociceptive pain results from the detection of intense or noxious stimuli by specialized high-
threshold sensory neurons (nociceptors), a transfer of action potentials to the spinal cord …

Proinflammatory cytokines are major mediators in the pathogenesis of diseases of joints
such as rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. This review emphasizes that proinflammatory …

In a large proportion of individuals nervous system damage may lead to a debilitating
chronic neuropathic pain. Such pain may now be considered a neuro-immune disorder …

Persistent pain is a sequela of several neurological conditions with a primary immune basis,
such as Guillain-Barré syndrome and multiple sclerosis. Additionally, diverse forms of injury …