While conventional in vitro culture systems and animal models have been used to study the
pathogenesis of viral infections and to facilitate development of vaccines and therapeutics …

Viruses are often cultured in cell lines for research and vaccine development, and those
often differ from the natural hosts or tissues. Cell lines can also differ in the presence of virus …

Alphaviruses are a large group (> 30 species) of enveloped, positive-strand RNA viruses.
The re-emergence of mosquito-transmitted alphaviruses associated with human diseases …

Antigenic characterization of circulating influenza A virus (IAV) isolates is routinely assessed
by using the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays for surveillance purposes. It is also …

Recombinant soluble trimeric influenza A virus hemagglutinins (HA) and tetrameric
neuraminidases (NAs) have proven to be excellent tools to decipher biological properties …

Seasonal H3N2 influenza evolves rapidly, leading to an extremely poor vaccine efficacy.
Substitutions employed during vaccine production using embryonated eggs (ie, egg …

Animal studies aimed at understanding influenza virus mutations that change host specificity
to adapt to replication in mammalian hosts are necessarily limited in sample numbers due to …

Seasonal H3N2 influenza evolves rapidly, leading to an extremely poor vaccine efficacy.
Substitutions employed during vaccine production using embryonated eggs (ie, egg …

New methods for deep sequence analysis provide an opportunity to follow the emergence
and dynamics of virus mutations in real time. Although viruses are commonly grown in cell …

RNA structures can have important and diverse functions. Influenza A viruses have eight
negative sense RNA genome segments. When two influenza virus strains infect the same …