Bacterial toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems have received increasing attention for their diverse
identities, structures, and functional implications in cell cycle arrest and survival against …

Abstract Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems, composed of a stable toxin and a cognate unstable
antitoxin, are ubiquitous in the genomes of bacteria and archaea. Under suitable growth …

Antibiotics are a medical wonder, but an increasing frequency of resistance among most
human pathogens is rendering them ineffective. If this trend continues, the consequences for …

Pseudomonas aeruginosa inhibits or eradicates Staphylococcus aureus in most in vitro
settings. Nonetheless, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus are commonly isolated from chronically …

Almost all bacteria synthesize two types of toxins—one for its survival by regulating different
cellular processes and another as a strategy to interact with host cells for pathogenesis …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements found in the majority of prokaryotes.
They encode toxin proteins that interfere with vital cellular functions and are counteracted by …

Small membrane proteins represent a subset of recently discovered small proteins (≤ 100
amino acids), which are a ubiquitous class of emerging regulators underlying bacterial …

Highlights•Small proteins can be secreted or not.•Small proteins can be used in
communication between bacteria or phages.•Small proteins can be used as bacteriocins in …

The identification of novel targets for antimicrobial agents is crucial for combating infectious
diseases caused by evolving bacterial pathogens. Components of bacterial toxin–antitoxin …

Bacterial small proteins (below 50 amino acids) encoded by small open reading frames
(sORFs) are recognized as an emerging class of functional molecules that have been …