Multicellularity has emerged multiple times in evolution, enabling groups of cells to share a
living space and reducing the burden of solitary tasks. While unicellular organisms exhibit …

Plants modulate root growth in response to changes in the local environment, guided by
intrinsic developmental genetic programs. The hormone Abscisic Acid (ABA) mediates …

Plasmodesmata are membrane-lined channels that are located in the plant cell wall and that
physically interconnect the cytoplasm and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of adjacent cells …

The Golgi apparatus is the central organelle in the secretory pathway and plays key roles in
glycosylation, protein sorting, and secretion in plants. Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis …

To form tissue networks, animal cells migrate and interact through proteins protruding from
their plasma membranes. Plant cells can do neither, yet plants form vein networks. How …

Cellulose is an essential morphogenic polysaccharide that is central to the stability of plant
cell walls and provides an important raw material for a range of plant-based fiber and fuel …

Plasmodesmata (PD) are essential for intercellular trafficking of molecules required for plant
life, from small molecules like sugars and ions to macromolecules including proteins and …

Cell-to-cell communication is a prerequisite for differentiation and development in
multicellular organisms. This communication has to be tightly regulated to ensure that …

Stomatal pores in leaves mediate CO2 uptake into the plant and water loss via transpiration.
Most plants are hypostomatous with stomata present only in the lower leaf surface (abaxial …

Stomatal guard cells are pairs of specialized epidermal cells that control water and CO2
exchange between the plant and the environment. To fulfill the functions of stomatal opening …