Epidemiology and clinical research indicate that only a subset of people who are exposed to
drugs of abuse will go on to develop a substance use disorder. Numerous factors impact …

The opioid epidemic is a growing public concern affecting millions of people worldwide.
Opioid-induced reward is the initial and key process leading to opioid abuse and addiction …

Neuropathic pain is a chronic condition triggered by lesions to the somatosensory nervous
system in which pain stimuli occur spontaneously or as pathologically amplified responses …

Background Morphine is used extensively in the clinical setting owing to its beneficial
effects, such as pain relief; its therapeutic utility is limited because the prolonged use of …

Sex differences in behaviors relevant to nicotine addiction have been observed in rodent
models and human subjects. Behavioral, imaging, and epidemiological studies also suggest …

Many diseases and degenerative processes affecting the nervous system and peripheral
organs trigger the activation of inflammatory cascades. Inflammation can be triggered by …

The gut-brain axis (GBA) has gained significant attention due to its putative contribution to
neuropsychiatric disorders; however, the integration of GBA and the commonly used …

Part of the ventral striatal division, the nucleus accumbens (NAc) drives the circuit activity of
an entire macrosystem about reward like a “flagship,” signaling and leading diverse …

The opioid epidemic is an evolving health crisis in need of interventions that target all
domains of maladaptive changes due to chronic use and abuse. Opioids are known for their …

This paper is the forty-first consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of
research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during …