Cellular immune responses consist of innate and adaptive cell-mediated immune
mechanisms, where all leukocyte subpopulations are included. Among these are vital …

Natural immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies are pentameric or hexameric macro-
immunoglobulins and have been highly conserved during evolution. IgMs are initially …

Humoral immune responses at mucosal surfaces have historically focused on IgA. Growing
evidence highlights the complexity of IgA-inducing pathways and the functional impact of IgA …

The immune system is composed of two subsystems—the innate immune system and the
adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is the first to respond to pathogens and …

The adaptive immune system arose 500 million years ago in ectothermic (cold-blooded)
vertebrates. Classically, the adaptive immune system has been defined by the presence of …

Parasites and infectious diseases are everywhere and represent some of the most potent
forces shaping the natural world. They affect almost every aspect imaginable in the life of …

Teleost fish are the most primitive bony vertebrates that contain immunoglobulins. In contrast
to mammals and birds, these species are devoid of immunoglobulin A (IgA) or a functional …

The adaptive immune system (AIS) in mammals, which is centred on lymphocytes bearing
antigen receptors that are generated by somatic recombination, arose approximately 500 …

The B cell receptor and secreted antibody are at the nexus of humoral adaptive immunity. In
this review, we summarize what is known of the immunoglobulin genes of jawed …

Teleosts clearly have a more diffuse gut associated lymphoid system, which is
morphological and functional clearly different from the mammalian GALT. All immune cells …