Three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models span the gap between two-dimensional cell cultures
and whole-animal systems. By mimicking features of the in vivo environment and taking …

Ligands of the transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) superfamily of growth factors initiate
signal transduction through a bewildering complexity of ligand–receptor interactions …

Bio‐hybrid technologies aim to replicate the unique capabilities of biological systems that
could surpass advanced artificial technologies. Soft bio‐hybrid robots consist of synthetic …

How morphogen gradients are formed in target tissues is a key question for understanding
the mechanisms of morphological patterning. Here, we review different mechanisms of …

It is widely accepted that the growth and regeneration of tissues and organs is tightly
controlled. Although experimental studies are beginning to reveal molecular mechanisms …

The theory that the spatial organization of cell fate is orchestrated by gradients of diffusing
molecules was a major contribution to 20 th century developmental biology. Although the …

In many cases, the level, positioning and timing of signaling through the bone
morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathway are regulated by molecules that bind BMP ligands in …

Morphogenesis is the process whereby cell collectives are shaped into differentiated tissues
and organs. The self-organizing nature of morphogenesis has been recently demonstrated …

TGF-β-induced Smad signal transduction from the membrane into the nucleus is not linear
and unidirectional, but rather a dynamic network that couples Smad phosphorylation and …

The tissues of a developing embryo are simultaneously patterned, moved and differentiated
according to an exchange of information between their constituent cells. We argue that these …