The vertebrate control of locomotion involves all levels of the nervous system from cortex to
the spinal cord. Here, we aim to cover all main aspects of this complex behavior, from the …

Here we argue functional neuroanatomy for posture-gait control. Multi-sensory information
such as somatosensory, visual and vestibular sensation act on various areas of the brain so …

This article proposes that biologically plausible theories of behavior can be constructed by
following a method of “phylogenetic refinement,” whereby they are progressively elaborated …

How consciousness appeared much earlier in evolutionary history than is commonly
assumed, and why all vertebrates and perhaps even some invertebrates are conscious …

Escape is one of the most studied animal behaviors, and there is a rich normative theory that
links threat properties to evasive actions and their timing. The behavioral principles of …

For decades, it has been thought that glutamate and GABA are released by distinct neurons.
However, some mouse neurons innervating the lateral habenula (LHb) co-release …

Gait is one of the keys to functional independence. For a long-time, walking was considered
an automatic process involving minimal higher-level cognitive input. Indeed, walking does …

A comparison of the vertebrate motor systems of the oldest group of now living vertebrates
(lamprey) with that of mammals shows that there are striking similarities not only in the basic …

The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) was discovered several decades ago in the cat.
It was functionally defined based on the ability of low threshold electrical stimuli within a …

Biological sex differences in brain function and structure are reliably associated with several
cortico-subcortical brain regions. While sexual orientation (hetero-versus homosexuality) …