Innate immunity is the first defense system against invading pathogens. Toll-like receptors
(TLRs) are well-defined pattern recognition receptors responsible for pathogen recognition …

Abstract Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 belongs to the TLR family of receptors inducing pro-
inflammatory responses to invading pathogens. TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide …

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are regarded as a new generation of antibiotics. Besides
antimicrobial activity, AMPs also have antibiofilm, immune-regulatory, and other activities …

Many of the ligands for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are unique to microorganisms, such that
receptor activation unequivocally indicates the presence of something foreign. However, a …

Despite recent advances in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, unmet
medical needs in some areas still exist. One of the main therapeutic approaches to alleviate …

The study of innate immunity and its link to inflammation and host defense encompasses
diverse areas of biology, ranging from genetics and biophysics to signal transduction and …

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is induced by inflammatory signals in a broad number of immune
cell types. IL-1β (and IL-18) are the only cytokines which are processed by caspase-1 after …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are discovered as crucial pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
involved in the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Later …

The innate immune response to lipopolysaccharide is essential for host defense against
Gram-negative bacteria. In response to bacterial infection, the TLR4/MD-2 complex that is …

Receptors of the innate immune system detect conserved determinants of microbial and viral
origin. Activation of these receptors initiates signaling events that culminate in an effective …