This review summarizes the brain mechanisms controlling sleep and wakefulness.
Wakefulness promoting systems cause low-voltage, fast activity in the …

Introduction 3. Brainstem arousal systems 3.1. The reticular formation 3.2. The cholinergic
ponto-mesencephalic neurons 3.3. The noradrenergic locus coeruleus neurons 3.4. The …

Although maintained by multiple arousal systems, wakefulness falters if orexin (hypocretin),
orexin receptors, or orexin neurons are deficient; narcolepsy results with hypersomnolence …

A model for control of the desynchronized phase of the sleep cycle postulates reciprocal
interaction between cells in the pontine gigantocellular tegmental field (FTG cells) and cells …

Cerebral concussion is both the most common and most puzzling type of traumatic brain
injury (TBI). It is normally produced by acceleration (or deceleration) of the head and is …

In 1955, noting that the locus coeruleus (LC) had “received only scant attention,” Russell
(1955) reviewed and extended the study of the comparative anatomy of this nucleus …

Narcolepsy-cataplexy is a disabling neurological disorder that affects 1 2000 individuals.
The main clinical features of narcolepsy, excessive daytime sleepiness and symptoms of …

Kainic acid was injected bilaterally (4.8 μg in 1.2 μl each side) into the dorsolateral
pontomesencephalic tegmentum of cats in order to destroy the cholinergic neurons located …

At its most basic level, the function of mammalian sleep can be described as a restorative
process of the brain and body; recently, however, progressive research has revealed a host …

Paradoxical or Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (PS) is a state characterized by REMs,
EEG activation and muscle atonia. In this review, we discuss the contribution of brainstem …