Every animal species expresses hundreds of different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
that respond to a wide variety of external stimuli. GPCRs-driven signaling pathways are …

The two β-arrestins, β-arrestin-1 and-2 (systematic names: arrestin-2 and-3, respectively),
are multifunctional intracellular proteins that regulate the activity of a very large number of …

The visual/β-arrestins, a small family of proteins originally described for their role in the
desensitization and intracellular trafficking of G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), have …

G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) use diverse mechanisms to regulate the mitogen-
activated protein kinases ERK1/2. β-Arrestins (βArr1/2) are ubiquitous inhibitors of G protein …

The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are members of a larger group of serine/threonine
(Ser/Thr) protein kinases from the mitogen-activated protein kinase family. JNKs were …

Heptahelical G protein-coupled receptors are the most diverse and therapeutically important
family of receptors in the human genome. Ligand binding activates heterotrimeric G proteins …

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are targeted by about a third of clinically used drugs.
Many GPCRs couple to more than one type of heterotrimeric G proteins, become …

β-arrestin 1 and β-arrestin 2 are well-known negative regulators of G-protein-coupled
receptor (GPCR) signaling. Upon GPCR activation, β-arrestins translocate to the cell …

In vertebrates, the arrestins are a family of four proteins that regulate the signaling and
trafficking of hundreds of different G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Arrestin homologs …

Summary β-arrestins, originally discovered as molecules that bind to and desensitize the
activated and phosphorylated form of the G protein-coupled β 2-adrenergic receptor (β 2 …