Ketamine, a racemic mixture consisting of (S)-and (R)-ketamine, has been in clinical use
since 1970. Although best characterized for its dissociative anesthetic properties, ketamine …

Background Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious stress-related disorder
caused by traumatic experiences. However, identifying a key therapy that can be used for …

Objective—To evaluate and compare effects of epidurally administered morphine, alfentanil,
butorphanol, tramadol, and U50488H on avoidance threshold to noxious electrical …

Currently, approaches to pain control in horses are a mixture of art and science. Recognition
of overt pain behaviours, such as rolling, kicking at the abdomen, flank watching, lameness …

While the global market for veterinary products has been expanding rapidly, there is still a
lack of specialist knowledge of equine pharmaceutics. In many cases, the basic structure of …

The practical application of epidural injection of local anesthetics in horses was first
described in Germany and later in England over 75 years ago [20]. Deposition of local …

Objective: This review discusses the different analgesic drugs and routes of administration
used in large animals for acute pain management. General guidelines and doses are given …

The transmission and perception of pain-inducing stimuli is dependent on neurotransmitters
(eg, glutamate, aspartate) that mediate communication between neurons by binding to 4 …

Objective To review the literature with regard to the use of different intravenous agents as
supplements to inhalational anaesthesia in horses. These drugs include lidocaine …

Background The general anesthetic ketamine is known to be an N-methyl-D-aspartate
receptor blocker. Although ketamine also blocks voltage-gated sodium channels in a local …