The environment in which the fetus develops is critical for its survival and long-term health.
The regulation of normal human fetal growth involves many multidirectional interactions …

Complex though integrated hormonal and metabolic changes characterize pregnancy. In the
face of progressive decline in insulin action, glucose homeostasis is maintained through a …

Placental lactogen (PL) is a peptide hormone secreted throughout pregnancy by both
animal and human specialized endocrine cells. PL plays an important role in the regulation …

Hypoxia is a common and severe stress to an organism's homeostatic mechanisms, and
hypoxia during gestation is associated with significantly increased incidence of maternal …

Maternal insulin‐like growth factors (IGFs) play a pivotal role in modulating fetal growth via
their actions on both the mother and the placenta. Circulating IGFs influence maternal tissue …

Background Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of diabetes that occurs during
pregnancy. GDM is a well known risk factor for foetal overgrowth, termed macrosomia which …

Key points Fetal glucagon concentrations are elevated in the setting of placental
insufficiency, hypoxia and elevated stress hormones. Chronically elevated glucagon …

Hypertensive pregnancy is an important cause of maternal mortality with several risk factors
which can be related to regional and ethnic factors. Although there have been many studies …

The placenta may mediate glucocorticoid-induced fetal growth restriction. Previous studies
have examined effects of fetal cortisol in sheep, which reduces placental binucleate cell …

A wealth of epidemiological, clinical, and experimental studies have been linked to poor
intrauterine conditions as well as metabolic and associated cardiovascular changes …