Plants have evolved a multitude of strategies to adjust their growth according to external and
internal signals. Interconnected metabolic and phytohormonal signalling networks allow …

Multicellularity has emerged multiple times in evolution, enabling groups of cells to share a
living space and reducing the burden of solitary tasks. While unicellular organisms exhibit …

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroidal phytohormones that are essential for plant growth,
development and adaptation to environmental stresses. BRs act in a dose-dependent …

Plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed nanoparticles that play diverse
roles in plant development and response. Recently, impressive progress has been made in …

In eukaryotes, membrane contact sites (MCS) allow direct communication between
organelles. Plants have evolved a unique type of MCS, inside intercellular pores, the …

Plasmodesmata are intercellular pores connecting together most plant cells. These
structures consist of a central constricted form of the endoplasmic reticulum, encircled by …

Sphingolipids, which comprise membrane systems together with other lipids, are ubiquitous
in cellular organisms. They show a high degree of diversity across plant species and vary in …

In this glossary of plant cell structures, we asked experts to summarize a present-day view of
plant organelles and structures, including a discussion of outstanding questions. In the …

Sphingolipids are essential metabolites found in all plant species. They are required for
plasma membrane integrity, tolerance of and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses, and …

Callose is an important linear form of polysaccharide synthesized in plant cell walls. It is
mainly composed of β-1, 3-linked glucose residues with rare amount of β-1, 6-linked …