The overconsumption of highly caloric and palatable foods has caused a surge in obesity
rates in the past half century, thereby posing a healthcare challenge due to the array of …

Glucagon‐like‐peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) derived from gut enteroendocrine cells and a discrete
population of neurons in the caudal medulla acts through humoral and neural pathways to …

Objective Long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), like liraglutide
and semaglutide, are viable treatments for diabetes and obesity. Liraglutide directly …

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is a critical neural node that senses blood glucose
and promotes glucose utilization or mobilization during hypoglycemia. The VMH neurons …

Insulin resistance may lead to structural and functional abnormalities of the human brain.
However, the mechanism by which insulin resistance impairs the brain remains elusive. In …

The glutamatergic–mediated excitatory system in the brain is vital for the regulation of sleep–
wake and general anesthesia. Specifically, the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVH) …

Insulin and IGF (insulin‐like growth factor) signaling integrates the storage and release of
nutrients with animal growth during development and throughout adult life. It is essential for …

Objective Loss of function mutations in the insulin receptor substrate 4 (IRS4) gene cause a
rare form of X-linked congenital central hypothyroidism in boys and men. Affected …

The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) is a heterogeneous collection of
neurons that play important roles in modulating feeding and energy expenditure. Abnormal …

Abstract “What's good for the heart is good for the brain.” Obesity and its associated
metabolic disorders including diabetes mellitus have been traditionally known as …