Emotions arise from activations of specialized neuronal populations in several parts of the
cerebral cortex, notably the anterior cingulate, insula, ventromedial prefrontal, and …

Anxiety is experienced in response to threats that are distal or uncertain, involving changes
in one's subjective state, autonomic responses, and behavior. Defensive and physiologic …

Decades of research has identified the brain areas that are involved in fear, fear extinction,
anxiety and related defensive behaviours. Newly developed genetic and viral tools …

The amygdala has long been associated with emotion and motivation, playing an essential
part in processing both fearful and rewarding environmental stimuli. How can a single …

This article reviews the behavioral neuroscience of extinction, the phenomenon in which a
behavior that has been acquired through Pavlovian or instrumental (operant) learning …

Although hormones such as glucocorticoids have been broadly accepted in recent decades
as general neuromodulators of memory processes, sex steroid hormones such as the potent …

Fear memory is the best-studied form of memory. It was thoroughly investigated in the past
60 years mostly using two classical conditioning procedures (contextual fear conditioning …

We review recent work on the role of intrinsic amygdala networks in the regulation of
classically conditioned defensive behaviors, commonly known as conditioned fear. These …

The amygdala plays key roles in fear and anxiety. Studies of the amygdala have largely
focused on neuronal function and connectivity. Astrocytes functionally interact with neurons …

Fear, which can be expressed innately or after conditioning, is triggered when a danger or a
stimulus predicting immediate danger is perceived. Its role is to prepare the body to face this …