Individuals are often confronted with events that violate their expectations, but disconfirming
evidence does not always lead to expectation change. We review seven theoretical models …

The present review investigates factors that predict three processes that lead to persistence
versus change of expectations after confrontation with expectation violations, based on the …

Expectations are probabilistic beliefs about the future that shape and influence our
perception, affect, cognition, and behavior in many contexts. This makes expectations a …

Pupils tend to dilate in response to surprising events, but it is not known whether these
responses are primarily stimulus driven or instead reflect a more nuanced relationship …

Most students experience expectation violations during their academic career, such as
unexpected failed tests. However, contradictory evidence does not always result in …

Negative social expectations are a key symptom of depression. It has been suggested that
individuals with depressive symptoms tend to maintain these expectations by devaluing new …

Background and objectives Negative expectations (NEs) are fundamental to various mental
disorders. Finding ways to modulate NEs would help to improve clinical treatment. The …

An experimental vignette study examined whether three specific situational cues predict
ways of coping with violated expectations. The situational cues (consistency, distinctiveness …

Anterior insula (aIns) is thought to play a crucial role in rapid adaptation in an ever-changing
environment. Mathematically, it is known to track risk and surprise. Modern theories of …

Two experiments investigated what eye movements can reveal about how we process
surprising information and how we update mental models in dynamic and unstructured …