Cancer cells can evade the attack from host immune systems via hijacking the regulatory
circuits mediated by immune checkpoints. Therefore, reactivating the antitumor immunity by …

The immune system maintains a critically organized network to defend against foreign
particles, while evading self-reactivity simultaneously. T lymphocytes function as effectors …

Cancer cells can evade immune surveillance through the molecular interactions of immune
checkpoint proteins, including programmed death 1 (PD-1), PD-L1, and cytotoxic T …

Abstract The B7-1/B7-2–CD28/CTLA-4 pathway is crucial in regulating T-cell activation and
tolerance. New B7 and CD28 molecules have recently been discovered and new pathways …

Autoimmune diseases (ADs) are characterized by the production of autoreactive
lymphocytes, immune responses to self-antigens, and inflammation in related tissues and …

Regulatory T (TR) cells manifest constitutive expression of cytotoxic T lymphocyte–
associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), but the function of CTLA-4 in mediating the regulatory …

T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain–containing 3 (Tim-3) is an inhibitory receptor that
is expressed on exhausted T cells during infection with HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus. By …

Cytotoxic T lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) plays a critical role in peripheral
tolerance. However, regulatory pathways initiated by the interactions of CTLA-4 with B7 …

T-lymphocyte activation and immune function are regulated by co-stimulatory molecules.
CD28, a receptor for B7 gene products, has a chief role in initiating T-cell immune …

Immune regulation by parasites is a global concept that includes suppression, diversion,
and conversion of the host immune response to the benefit of the pathogen. While many …