Neuronal dysfunction initiates several intracellular signaling cascades to release different
proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, as well as various reactive oxygen species. In …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of innate immune system receptors that respond to
pathogen-derived and tissue damage-related ligands. TLR signaling in immune cells, glia …

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is currently a major cause of morbidity and poor quality of life in
Western society, with an estimate of 2.5 million people affected per year in Europe …

The brain extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a crucial role in both the developing and adult
brain by providing structural support and mediating cell‐cell interactions. In this review, we …

Significance: Stroke is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Inflammatory
cascades have a major impact on outcome and regeneration after ischemic stroke. High …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) belong to pattern-recognition receptor family that could recognize
exogenous pathogen-associated molecular patterns and endogenous damage-associated …

The mechanisms underlying secondary brain damage following traumatic brain injury (TBI)
remain unclear. A great many studies have demonstrated that inflammatory cascades …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are type I transmembrane signaling molecules that are expressed
in cells of the innate immune system. In these cells, TLRs function as pattern recognition …

Various pathophysiologic mechanisms leading to sickness behaviors have been proposed.
For example, an inflammatory process in the hypothalamus has been implicated, but the …

Abstract Heme oxygenase (HO)-1 is a stress-inducible rate-limiting enzyme in heme
degradation that confers cytoprotection against oxidative injury and provides a vital function …