The neurotransmitter dopamine is a key factor in central nervous system (CNS) function,
regulating many processes including reward, movement, and cognition. Dopamine also …

Involuntary movements, or dyskinesia, represent a debilitating complication of levodopa (L-
dopa) therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). L-dopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) are ultimately …

Dopaminergic medications used in the treatment of patients with Parkinson's disease are
associated with motor and non-motor behavioural side-effects, such as dyskinesias and …

Epigenetics is a quickly growing field encompassing mechanisms regulating gene
expression that do not involve changes in the genotype. Epigenetics is of increasing …

Amphetamine-related drugs, such as 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and
methamphetamine (METH), are popular recreational psychostimulants. Several preclinical …

The striatum is composed principally of GABAergic, medium spiny striatal projection neurons
(MSNs) that can be categorized based on their gene expression, electrophysiological …

Levodopa is the most effective drug for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. However, the
long-term use of this dopamine precursor is complicated by highly disabling fluctuations and …

The direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglia have been proposed to oppositely
regulate locomotion and differentially contribute to pathological behaviors. Analysis of the …

Background L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)–induced dyskinesia is an
incapacitating complication of L-DOPA therapy that affects most patients with Parkinson's …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative
disease, but its pathogenesis is not fully understood. The selective neuronal cell death in PD …