Estrogens and androgens influence the growth and maintenance of the mammalian
skeleton and are responsible for its sexual dimorphism. Estrogen deficiency at menopause …

Bone remodeling is essential for adult bone homeostasis. It comprises two phases: bone
formation and resorption. The balance between the two phases is crucial for sustaining bone …

Mouse models with cell-specific deletion of the estrogen receptor (ER) α, the androgen
receptor (AR) or the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL), as well as …

Osteoporosis is a significant public health problem, and a major cause of the disease is
estrogen deficiency following menopause in women. In addition, considerable evidence …

The actions of androgens such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone are mediated via
the androgen receptor (AR), a ligand-dependent nuclear transcription factor and member of …

Background. Growth hormone (GH) and insulin‐like growth factor (IGF‐1) are fundamental
in skeletal growth during puberty and bone health throughout life. GH increases tissue …

Sex steroids are chief regulators of gender differences in the skeleton, and male gender is
one of the strongest protective factors against osteoporotic fractures. This advantage in bone …

Osteoporosis is a common disorder, affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide, and
characterized by decreased bone mineral density and increased fracture risk. Known …

Androgens play pivotal roles in the regulation of male development and physiological
processes, particularly in the male reproductive system. Most biological effects of androgens …

Androgens are not only essential for bone development but for the maintenance of bone
mass. Therefore, conditions with androgen deficiency, such as male hypogonadism …