Addictive drugs are habit-forming. Addiction is a learned behavior; repeated exposure to
addictive drugs can stamp in learning. Dopamine-depleted or dopamine-deleted animals …

Opiates are a highly addictive class of drugs that have been reported to possess both
dopamine-dependent and dopamine-independent rewarding properties. The search for …

Motivational salience regulates the strength of goal seeking, the amount of risk taken, and
the energy invested from mild to extreme. Highly motivational experiences promote highly …

Background: Apathy is common in stroke survivors. Unlike poststroke depression, apathy
after stroke has not been extensively investigated and the significance of the location of …

This review analyzes literature that describes the behavioral effects of 2 metabolites of
ethanol (EtOH): acetaldehyde and salsolinol (a condensation product of acetaldehyde and …

Ethanol engages cholinergic signaling and elicits endogenous acetylcholine release.
Acetylcholine input to the midbrain originates from the mesopontine tegmentum (MPT) …

The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system is implicated in the processing of the positive
reinforcing effect of all drugs of abuse, including nicotine. It has been suggested that the …

Ethanol is one of the most abused drugs in the western societies. It is well established that
mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons mediate the rewarding properties of ethanol. In our …

Abstract Sleep–wake (S–W) disturbances are frequently associated with alcohol use
disorders (AUD), occurring during periods of active drinking, withdrawal, and abstinence …

Drug dependence is characterized by a switch in motivation wherein a positively reinforcing
substance can become negatively reinforcing. Put differently, drug use can transform from a …