A great deal of empirical studies have investigated the characteristics of terrestrial refraction.
However, only few of these are concerned with short‐term fluctuations of refraction …

The trigonometric levelling using the simultaneous reciprocal method has been proved to
meet the precision of second order levelling. But this method is invalid once the distance of …

When an electromagnetic wave passes through the atmosphere, due to variation of
atmospheric parameters, its propagation path is usually altered and the propagation speed …

Deformation measurements are repeatable. Therefore, they are often performed with the
same equipment, methods, and geometric conditions in different epochs. However, although …

With the arrival on the market of high-precision topographic total stations, professionals
today, using appropriate methodologies, can determine altimetric connections to an …

Instabilities in observed environments at sea, such as the sudden appearance of fog,
varying temperature or pressure, changes in wind speed and direction, and differential …

Abstract Knowledge of the actual refraction coefficient is essential in leveling surveys and
precise electromagnetic distance measurement reduction. The most common method …

This article presents a new, original approach to modeling vertical refraction in trigonometric
levelling. So-called polynomial transition curves are used here. In this approach, it is …

1 Experiments Survey & Alignment Section-EN/SM M/ESA, European Organization for
Nuclear Research, CH–1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland,(konstantinos. nikolitsas@ cern. ch) 2 …

On the basis of various source studies, the article presents selected theoretical and practical
aspects in relation to the applications of trigonometric leveling. This applies in particular to …