Despite the success of vaccination to greatly mitigate or eliminate threat of diseases caused
by pathogens, there are still known diseases and emerging pathogens for which the …

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by most cell types as part of an intracellular
communication system in crucial processes such as inflammation, cell proliferation, and …

Immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting programmed cell death protein 1, programmed death-
ligand 1, and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 provide deep and durable …

Persistent human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is recognized as the main cause of cervical
cancer and other malignant cancers. Although early detection and treatment can be …

Despite the effectiveness of vaccination in reducing or eradicating diseases caused by
pathogens, there remain certain diseases and emerging infections for which developing …

Vaccination is an innovative strategy for cancer treatment by leveraging various components
of the patients' immunity to boost an anti-tumor immune response. Rationally designed …

Cancer immunotherapy, or the utilization of the body's immune system to attack tumor cells,
has gained prominence over the past few decades as a viable cancer treatment strategy …

There are strong biologic and preclinical rationales for the development of therapeutic
cancer vaccines; however, the clinical translation of this treatment strategy has been …

Highlights•Cancer vaccines have a long history, but traditional protein/peptide antigens
have not had much success.•Nucleic acid vaccines based on either plasmid DNA or mRNA …

Vaccines activate suitable immune responses to fight against diseases but can possess
limitations such as compromised efficacy and immunogenic responses, poor stability, and …