Sexual dimorphism refers to differences between biological sexes that extend beyond
sexual characteristics. In humans, sexual dimorphism in the immune response has been …

Women have stronger immune responses to infections and vaccination than men.
Paradoxically, the stronger immune response comes at a steep price, which is the high …

Autoimmune diseases are characterized by a significant sex dimorphism, with women
showing increased susceptibility to disease. This is, at least in part, due to sex-dependent …

Sex characteristics exhibit significant disparities in various human diseases, including
prevalent cardiovascular diseases, cancers, metabolic disorders, autoimmune diseases …

Over the last decades, a central role for vitamin D in immune modulation has been well
established. The active form of vitamin D, ie, 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D, through the …

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have become of concern for a variety f health
issues. Due to their effects on the endocrine system they have been thoroughly examined …

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are newly discovered, small, noncoding ribonucleic acids (RNAs) that
play critical roles in the regulation of host genome expression at the posttranscriptional level …

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) produce large amounts of type I interferons (IFN-α/β) in
response to viral or endogenous nucleic acids through activation of their endosomal Toll-like …

Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks and destroys the organs and
tissues of its own host. Autoimmunity is the third most common type of disease in the United …

Due to the female predominance of autoimmune diseases, the role of gender and sex
hormones in the immune system is of long-term interest. Estrogen's primary effects are …